Supporting older people’s social inclusion and access to care

Written by Dr Grace Krause and edited by Dr Kat Deerfield and Dr Flossie Caerwynt

August 2025

It can be hard for older people in Wales to access the right kind of support. Some older people face different types of exclusion that stop them fully participating in society. This evidence summary looks at what social exclusion in older life looks like and how services can adapt to address these challenges.

Introduction

Older people in Wales often struggle to access the right kind of support (Age Cymru, 2024). Like other parts of the UK, Wales has an ageing society. By 2038, it’s likely that one in four people in Wales will be over 65 (Welsh Government, 2021). There are other changes to the way we live that may affect older people’s needs, now and in the future. For example, more people are living alone, including more older people, and more older people are becoming unpaid carers (Welsh Government, 2021).

We asked social care staff what would help support their work with older people. One thing they asked for was more research on how services can help reduce social isolation for older people and their carers.

People working in social care also told us that there were multiple barriers to older people accessing support. They said that it was hard to avoid gaps in care for older people, especially when they were being discharged from hospital. They said this was because services are not always joined up. They also told us that they were concerned that older people do not always get the right level of support early on, and that people with complex needs often struggle to get all the support they need.

This evidence summary looks at two specific ways people are working to address these issues: joined up working between health and social care and social prescribing. Social prescribing helps connect people to support that’s available within their communities. We look at what the research says about the effectiveness of both approaches and how they can be used to improve well-being in later life.

Three adults and a child celebrating with balloons and presents

Exclusion in later life

Many older people face exclusion from different areas of life. Walsh et al. (2021) describe five different ways that older people are often excluded from society. In this section, we discuss these five forms of exclusion, and we’ve also added digital exclusion as an additional theme.

Social exclusion

Research on social exclusion focuses on how a lack or loss of social relationships can negatively impact on many areas of a person’s life.

A lack of social relationships leads to people being disconnected from the social support that they need. Relationships are valuable for general well-being, as well as for the practical support that other people can provide (Burholt and Aartse, 2021). People who are socially excluded also often lack opportunities to participate in society. For example, they may be excluded from taking part in hobbies, political activities, and volunteering or paid work. This means they’re even further isolated from the world around them (Walsh et al., 2021). In the UK, there are also strong links between social exclusion and economic exclusion (Van Regenmortel et al., 2021).

Economic exclusion

Many older people struggle financially. Data from 2024 shows 16 per cent of pensioners in Wales were living in poverty (Welsh Government, 2025). Older people who are single are more likely than couples to live in poverty. In 2022, 24 per cent of single older people were living in poverty, compared to 14 per cent of couples (Older People’s Commissioner for Wales, 2023). Statistics available for the rest of the UK also tell us that older people from some communities may have much higher rates of poverty. For example, in England, more than 40 per cent of people over 50 of Pakistani background live in poverty (Centre for Ageing Better, 2024). The cost of living crisis has also had a significant impact on pensioners. Between 2021 and 2024, consumer goods became 21 per cent more expensive, but pensions have not increased in line with inflation (Centre for Ageing Better, 2025).

Services

Older people sometimes struggle to access the services they need, like health and social care services, transport, and communication technologies (Draulans, 2021). Research shows that several things can form barriers to accessing services. These include (Srakar et al., 2015):

geographic location (for example, remote or rural areas)
for-profit care models
poverty
one size fits all services that do not take individuals’ needs into account.

Older LGBTQ+ people, older people from Black and minority ethnic backgrounds, and disabled older people especially struggle to access services when the services are not made accessible to these groups. More information on how to make services more accessible to LGBTQ+ people can be found in our evidence summary on supporting older LGBTQ+ people in social care.

Three people walking together. One has a walking frame, and one has a walking stick

Community and spatial exclusion

As it gets harder for older people to get around, they can face more isolation from their community. The accessibility of the built environment around people makes a difference, as does having access to community spaces. Accessibility of the built environment includes resources that are within a comfortable walking distance. For example, accessible public toilets or benches on walking routes (Tournier and Vidovićová, 2021).

There are specific challenges in understanding the support needs of people living in minority ethnic communities. Burholt et al. (2018) note that measures that are used to assess support needs and isolation in majority populations might not work as well on people with varied cultural backgrounds. In particular, they note that some minority ethnic communities tend to be more focused on the collective and on families. This means that support networks will look different and support needs might also look different. This might lead to minority communities receiving inadequate support due to stereotypes about communities “providing for their own” (Burholt et al., 2018).

Civic exclusion

Many older people experience civic exclusion. This means they are often shut off from opportunities to impact or make decisions in their communities and other forms of civic engagement. Civic engagement includes any kind of activity that is focused on working towards a common good. This can mean things like volunteering or engagement in politics and activism (Torres, 2021).

Digital exclusion

Older people are less likely to be able to access the internet or digital resources with confidence than younger people. This leads to difficulties accessing some services and activities. Digital exclusion is linked to other forms of social exclusion, particularly poverty (Bucelli and McKnight, 2022).

Interventions to address digital exclusion were reviewed by Public Health Wales and the Health and Care Research Wales Evidence Centre (Wale et al., 2024). Their broad findings were that overall, older people who took part in interventions were positive about their involvement. However, they did not become significantly more comfortable engaging in online activities. The authors argued that there’s some indication that training can make older people more comfortable with digital technologies. However, the best way to make sure that older people aren’t negatively impacted by digital exclusion is to make sure that people can access everything they need without relying on digital technology (Wale et al., 2024).

Two people talking together. One has a pen and paper

The best way to make sure that older people aren’t negatively impacted by digital exclusion is to make sure they can access everything they need without relying on digital technology

These different types of exclusion are all connected, and often older people will be affected by more than one. Economic exclusion, for example, will make it much harder to access services or take part in social events. Living somewhere with poor transport links or without accessible transport makes it harder to access most things.

Social care plays an important role in supporting inclusion for older people. Social care itself provides important services for people and can also help with access to other parts of life including facilitating social connections, supporting access to transport and leisure activities, and helping people to stay in work with the right kind of support.

Connecting health and social care

In this section, we look at how connected working between health and social care can improve access to care for older people. When older people come in contact with social care, they often have health needs as well (Milne et al., 2014). This means that they need to draw on different kinds of support at the same time. The connection between different services plays a vital role in improving care. In a review of different studies on joined up working in adult social care, Cameron et al. (2014) found that programmes to improve joint and integrated working of health and social care services could improve people’s overall quality of life as well as clinical outcomes. Research also suggests there may be other positive effects, such as reducing inappropriate admissions into care and supporting people to stay independent at home for longer.

One way of improving connections between health and social care is by making sure the resources within a community or geographic area are better connected. These efforts are described as “place-based care”. You can read more about this in our evidence summary on place-based care.

Health and social care services draw funding from different sources and have other organisational differences. This can make it hard for people to access the support they need from both. A 2018 parliamentary review of health and social care in Wales called for the establishment of one system of seamless health and care in Wales (Welsh Government, 2018). The report recommended a system based on person-centred care with minimal barriers between health care and social care.

Efforts to create better connections between different forms of care are ongoing. Several initiatives within Wales have already been established. Three initiatives were explored as part of a report by Unison Cymru that looked at how to join up health and social care successfully (Llewellyn et al., 2018):

in Anglesey, a specialist service model for people with dementia and complex health needs supported people within a care home by drawing from social and health care services
in Bridgend, people accessing care and support were referred to multidisciplinary teams through the Community Resource Team. People entered the service through a central point of contact and were then supported by occupational therapists, social workers, and district nurses. The teams focused on re-enablement, anticipatory care planning, independence, and well-being
in Monmouthshire, three health and social care hubs allowed people to access support from occupational therapists, physiotherapists, community nurses, chronic condition nurses, social workers, and direct care staff.

These examples vary in terms of how they operate, who they provide services for, and how the services are being integrated.

As people age, they may need to draw on different kinds of support at the same time. The connection between different services plays a vital role in improving care

What research says about how to connect health and social care

In this section, we discuss studies of specific programmes that tested new ways of joining up work between health and social care. The results of these studies have implications for how to support existing efforts to improve connections between social care and health.

There are several factors that may improve how social care and health care providers work together.

Supporting joint working through good leadership

Several studies emphasise how important it is for leaders to show they prioritise joined up working, and shared values (Cameron et al., 2014). Senior management can show this by allocating resources, showing that they prioritise joint working and being clear about expectations and aims (Llewellyn et al, 2018; Cameron et al., 2014).

Staff reported feeling better supported when senior leaders were strongly committed to an integrated approach. There were a few ways that support for joined up working at a strategic level made a positive difference. For example, supporting training for all professionals to promote a shared understanding of the goals of an integrated approach. This also helped the professionals make the necessary changes in their work for this model to succeed (Banerjee et al., 2007; Rothera et al., 2008).

Balancing different cultures and priorities

Studies have found that a lack of understanding between health and social care professionals makes it more difficult for joined up working initiatives to work well (Asthana and Halliday, 2003; Glasby et al., 2008; Clarkson et al., 2011).

In a study of a Swedish multi-disciplinary project, researchers found that lack of collaboration between health and social care professionals ultimately contributed to its failure. The project aimed to improve connections between health and social care for older people with multiple health issues. The study showed that professionals from different disciplines struggled to understand each other’s professional values and cultures. Rather than using the varied skills in the group to complement each other, some professionals tried to convince others that their way of doing things was best (Melin Emilsson et al., 2022).

The researchers identified an imbalance between health and social care in the project team, with many more professionals from health involved than from social care. The makeup of the project team may have contributed to a power imbalance (Melin Emilsson et al., 2022). This suggests that in designing multi-disciplinary teams, it’s important to think about balance between health and social care from the beginning. This means making sure that social care professionals and health care professionals can engage on an equal footing.

Joining up logistics

Different cultures and processes can also be a challenge when information systems and administrative procedures are different. While the logistics of sharing information across different systems can be an obstacle, working actively to improve communication can help make joint working more successful (Cameron et al., 2014). Llewellyn et al. (2018) emphasise the importance of looking at the practicalities of joining up care. They found that agreeing on what the best way to communicate is and building trust in the long term played an important role in enabling positive collaboration.

Effective data sharing is one vital aspect of successful collaboration. A review of 24 studies on data sharing between health and social care for older people found that it was important for (de Bell et al., 2024):

assessing people’s needs
coordinating the different services a person may need
supporting people moving from hospital to home
coordinating care for people living in care homes
making sure people have good end-of-life care.

The review found that trust was essential for good data sharing, while mistrust between different professionals made data sharing more difficult. They also found that data sharing worked better when there were appropriate policies and procedures in place that meant that everyone could navigate the system effectively. In order to be able to share relevant information, it was helpful for professionals to understand what others needed the data for, highlighting the importance of clear communication (de Bell et al., 2024).

Social prescribing can help older people tackle the challenges of social exclusion. It can include things like helping with travel, access to groups and activities, and confidence building

How does social prescribing work in Wales?

Social prescribing takes different forms across Wales. Researchers charting the different forms of social prescribing across Wales found that in 2021, over 25,000 people used social prescribing (Wallace et al., 2021). The study showed that the term 'social prescribing':

was used to mean different kinds of work or activity
was delivered by people with diverse levels of expertise
involved support for varied groups of people.

This research showed that social prescribers mostly worked for third sector organisations, with some sitting within local authorities or GP practices.

Wallace et al. (2021) also found that social prescribing organisations in Wales had a strong focus on offering holistic, person-centred approaches. Those working in social prescribing saw their role as more than just signposting to support. Rather, they viewed their work as building relationships with people and connecting them to a wide range of local services and networks.

The people accessing social prescribing in the study also described feeling more connected to their communities. Finding confidence to connect with others helped many to get out more. They also reported finding more spaces to talk about their mental health.

The positive effects of using social connectors to combat loneliness in older people also comes out in an evaluation of a project run by Age Cymru Gwynedd and Môn in Anglesey. The project Cadwyn Môn, worked with people on a one-to-one basis to increase their social contacts and connections (Roberts and Windle, 2020). Through the project, people accessing the service were matched with volunteers who supported them to identify their goals and take part in community groups.

Researchers analysed survey responses from 120 people who had completed the programme and found that people reported significant improvements to both their mental health and their quality of life. They reported feeling happier and more confident and having a better outlook on life. They also reported improved physical health and mobility, using public transport more, making new friends or re-kindling old friendships, taking up new hobbies, and learning new skills.

Helping older people connect with their communities can be powerful, but it doesn't replace the need for adequate funding for social care and health services

These approaches also focus on relationships or other resources people already have, including people’s skills and abilities to form new social connections. While those things can be truly transformative for people, Daly and Westwood (2018) note that they cannot be a replacement for looking at people’s material resources. The researchers also raise concerns that asset-based approaches might not work as well for older people who live in poorer areas. While getting better connected to existing resources might offer a lot to people from more affluent areas, it might offer significantly less for people in areas that have been historically disadvantaged. This might also affect people with particularly poor health or with higher support needs. They might not be able to access resources if there isn’t funding to give them personalised support.

Wallace et al. (2021) similarly describe issues around capacity and expertise. They find that the boom in social prescribing has led to many new jobs being created, but that these are often fixed-term contracts with relatively low salaries. The people they talked to also described concerns around resources and the sustainability of programmes.

These concerns are important to keep in mind when supporting older people to access services. Empowering people to connect to their communities and draw on the resources around them can be powerful. However, it’s important to recognise that this is not the right approach for everyone and does not replace the need for adequate funding of social care and health services.

Conclusion

Everyone in Wales deserves to access the support they need to age well. Sometimes there are barriers that lead to unequal access. This evidence summary has presented research around two ways to address social exclusion and difficulties accessing services. It can be easier for people to access the care they need when health and social care services are able to work together effectively. Social inclusion is also an important part of making sure older people can access the right support, and social prescribing can be one way of working toward that goal.

Additional reading

Here’s a list of the five most relevant resources to supporting older people’s social inclusion and access to care that are either open access or freely available on the NHS Wales e-Library.

Daly, M. and Westwood, S. (2018) ‘Asset-based approaches, older people and social care: an analysis and critique’, Ageing and Society, 38 (6), pp. 1087-1099, doi:10.1017/S0144686X17000071, available at https://doi.org/10.1017/S0144686X17000071.
Giebel, C., Hassan, S., Harvey, G., Devitt, C., Harper, L. and Simmill-Binning, C. (2022) ‘Enabling middle-aged and older adults accessing community services to reduce social isolation: Community Connectors’, Health and Social Care in the Community, 30, pp. e461-e468, doi:10.1111/hsc.13228, available at https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13228.
Llewellyn, M., Garthwaite, T., Blackmore, H. and McDonald, M. (2018) ‘Working for a shared common purpose - experiences of health and social care integration in Wales’, UNISON Cymru Wales, available at https://uswvarious1.blob.core.windows.net/uswvarious-prod-uploads/documents/UNISON_-_HSC_Integration_Report.pdf.
Milne, A., Sullivan, M.P., Tanner, D., Richards, S., Ray, M., Lloyd, L., Beech, C. and Phillips, J. (2014) Social work with older people: a vision for the future, The College of Social Work, available at http://www.cpa.org.uk/cpa-lga-evidence/College_of_Social_Work/Milneetal(2014)-Socialworkwitholderpeople-avisionforthefuture.pdf.
Wallace, C., Davies, M., Elliott, M., Llewellyn, M., Randall, H., Owens, J., Phillips, J., Teichner, L., Sullivan, S., Hannah, V., Jenkins, B. and Jesurasa, A. (2021) ‘Understanding social prescribing in Wales: a mixed methods study’, Wales School for Social Prescribing Research (WSSPR), PRIME Centre Wales, Data Cymru, Public Health Wales, available at https://www.wsspr.wales/ws/media-library/269583bea8a143e18a9d0ae85fdb4314/phw_sp_report_final.pdf.

Reference list - click to expand

Age Cymru (2024) Why are we still waiting? Delays in social care in Wales, available at https://www.agecymru.wales/siteassets/documents/why-are-we-still-waiting/why-are-we-still-waiting.pdf (accessed: 7 July 2025).

Asthana, S. and Halliday, J. (2003) ‘Intermediate care: its place in a whole-systems approach’, Journal of Integrated Care, 11 (6), pp. 15-24, doi:10.1108/14769018200300054.

Banerjee, S., Willis, R., Matthews, D., Contell, F., Chan, J. and Murray, J. (2007) ‘Improving the quality of care for mild to moderate dementia: an evaluation of the Croydon memory service model’, International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 22 (8), pp. 782–788, doi:10.1002/gps.1741.

Bucelli, I. and McKnight, A. (2022) ‘Poverty and social exclusion: review of international evidence on digital exclusion’, Wales Centre for Public Policy, available at https://www.wcpp.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/211025-WCPP-Poverty-Review-Digital-exclusion.pdf (accessed: 4 April 2025).

Burholt, V. and Aartse, M. ‘Introduction: Framing Exclusion from Social Relations’, in Walsh, K., Scharf, T. Van Regenmortel, S. and Wanka, A. (eds.) (2021) Social Exclusion in Later Life: Interdisciplinary and Policy Perspectives, Cham, Springer International Publishing, pp. 77-82.

Burholt, V., Dobbs, C. and Victor, C. (2018) ‘Social support networks of older migrants in England and Wales: the role of collectivist culture’, Ageing & Society, 38, pp. 1453-1477, doi:10.1017/S0144686X17000034.

Cameron, A., Lart, R., Bostock, L. and Coomber, C. (2014) ‘Factors that promote and hinder joint and integrated working between health and social care services: a review of research literature’, Health and Social Care in the Community, 22 (3), pp. 225-233, doi:10.1111/hsc.12057.

Centre for Ageing Better (2024) State of Ageing 2023-24, available at https://ageing-better.org.uk/financial-security-state-ageing-2023-4 (accessed: 11 July 2025).

Centre for Ageing Better (2025) State of Ageing 2025, available at https://ageing-better.org.uk/financial-security-state-ageing-2025 (accessed: 11 July 2025).

Clarkson, P., Brand, C., Hughes, J. and Challis, D. (2011) ‘Integrating assessments of older people: examining evidence and impact from a randomised controlled trial’, Age and Ageing, 40 (3), pp. 388-391, doi:10.1093/ageing/afr015.

Daly, M. and Westwood, S. (2018) ‘Asset-based approaches, older people and social care: an analysis and critique’, Ageing and Society 38 (6), pp. 1087-1099, doi:10.1017/S0144686X17000071.

de Bell, S., Zhelev, Z., Bethel, A., Thompson Coon, J. and Anderson, R. (2024) ‘Factors influencing effective data sharing between health care and social care regarding the care of older people: a qualitative evidence synthesis’, Health and Social Care Delivery Research,12 (12), pp. 1-87, doi:10.3310/TTWG4738.

Draulans, V. and Lamura, G. ‘Introduction: Framing Exclusion from Services’, in Walsh, K., Scharf, T. Van Regenmortel, S. and Wanka, A. (eds.) (2021) Social Exclusion in Later Life: Interdisciplinary and Policy Perspectives, Cham, Springer International Publishing, pp. 135-140.

Giebel, C., Hassan, S., Harvey, G., Devitt, C., Harper, L. and Simmill-Binning, C. (2022) ‘Enabling middle-aged and older adults accessing community services to reduce social isolation: Community Connectors’, Health and Social Care in the Community, 30, e461–e468, doi:10.1111/hsc.13228.

Glasby, J., Martin, G., and Regen, E. (2008) ‘Older people and the relationship between hospital services and intermediate care: results from a national evaluation’, Journal of Interprofessional Care, 22(6), pp. 639-649, doi:10.1080/13561820802309729.

Llewellyn, M., Garthwaite, T., Blackmore, H. and McDonald, M. (2018) ‘Working for a shared common purpose - experiences of health and social care integration in Wales’, UNISON Cymru Wales, available at https://uswvarious1.blob.core.windows.net/uswvarious-prod-uploads/documents/UNISON_-_HSC_Integration_Report.pdf (accessed: 3 February 2025).

Melin Emilsson, U., Strid, A.L. and Söderberg, M. (2022) ‘Lack of Coordination between Health Care and Social Care in Multi-Professional Teamwork - the Obstacle for Coherent Care of Older People Suffering from Multi-Morbidity’, Journal of Population Ageing, 15, pp. 319–335, doi:10.1007/s12062-020-09300-8.

Milne, A., Sullivan, M.P., Tanner, D., Richards, S., Ray, M., Lloyd, L., Beech, C. and Phillips, J. (2014) Social work with older people: a vision for the future, The College of Social Work, available at http://www.cpa.org.uk/cpa-lga-evidence/College_of_Social_Work/Milneetal(2014)-Socialworkwitholderpeople-avisionforthefuture.pdf (accessed: 11 July 2025).

Older People’s Commissioner for Wales (2023) Understanding Wales’ ageing population: key statistics, available at https://olderpeople.wales/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/221222-Understanding-Wales-ageing-population-24-November.pdf (accessed: 7 July 2025).

Roberts, J.R. and Windle, G. (2020) ‘Evaluation of an intervention targeting loneliness and isolation for older people in North Wales’, Perspectives in Public Health, 140 (3), pp. 153-161, doi:10.1177/1757913919868752.

Rothera, I., Jones, R., Harwood, R., Avery, A.J., Fisher, K., James, V., Shaw, I. and Waite, J. (2008) ‘An evaluation of a specialist multiagency home support service for older people with dementia using qualitative methods’, International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 23 (1), pp. 65–72.

Srakar, A., Hrast, M.F., Hlebec, V. and Majcen, B. ‘Social exclusion, welfare regime and unmet long-term care need: Evidence from SHARE’, in Börsch-Supan, A, Kneip, T., Litwin, H., Myck, M. and Weber, G. (eds.) (2015) Ageing in Europe: Supporting policies for an inclusive society, Berlin, de Gruyter, pp. 189-198.

Torres, S. ‘Introduction: Framing Social Exclusion’, in Walsh, K., Scharf, T. Van Regenmortel, S. and Wanka, A. (eds.) (2021) Social Exclusion in Later Life: Interdisciplinary and Policy Perspectives, Cham, Springer International Publishing, pp. 239-243.

Tournier, I. and Vidovićová, A. ‘Introduction: Framing Community and Spatial Exclusion’, in Walsh, K., Scharf, T. Van Regenmortel, S. and Wanka, A. (eds.) (2021) Social Exclusion in Later Life: Interdisciplinary and Policy Perspectives, Cham, Springer International Publishing, pp. 185-192.

Van Regenmortel, S., Winter, B., Thelin, A., Burholt, V. and De Donder, L. (2021) ‘Exclusion from Social Relations Among Older People in Rural Britain and Belgium: A Cross-National Exploration Taking a Life-Course and Multilevel Perspective’, in Walsh, K., Scharf, T. Van Regenmortel, S. and Wanka, A. (eds.) (2021) Social Exclusion in Later Life: Interdisciplinary and Policy Perspectives, Cham, Springer International Publishing, pp. 83 -98.

Wale, A., Everitt, J., Ayres, T., Okolie, C., Morgan, H., Shaw, H., Tudor Edwards, R., Davies, J., Lewis, R., Cooper, A. and Edwards, A. (2024) ‘A rapid review of the effectiveness of interventions for addressing digital exclusion in older adults’, Public Health Wales, doi:10.1101/2024.03.21.24304670.

Wallace, C., Davies, M., Elliott, M., Llewellyn, M., Randall, H., Owens, J., Phillips, J., Teichner, L., Sullivan, S., Hannah, V., Jenkins, B. and Jesurasa, A. (2021) ‘Understanding social prescribing in Wales: a mixed methods study’, Wales School for Social Prescribing Research (WSSPR), PRIME Centre Wales, Data Cymru, Public Health Wales, available at https://www.wsspr.wales/ws/media-library/269583bea8a143e18a9d0ae85fdb4314/phw_sp_report_final.pdf (accessed: 4 April 2025).

Walsh, K., Scharf, T., Van Regenmortel, S. and Wanka, A., ‘The Intersection of Ageing and Social Exclusion’, in Walsh, K., Scharf, T. Van Regenmortel, S. and Wanka, A. (eds.) (2021) Social Exclusion in Later Life: Interdisciplinary and Policy Perspectives, Cham, Springer International Publishing, pp. 3-21.

Welsh Government (2018) ‘A revolution from within: transforming health and care in Wales’, available at https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2018-01/Review-health-social-care-report-final.pdf (accessed: 3 February 2025).

Welsh Government (2021) ‘Age friendly Wales: our strategy for an ageing society’, available at https://www.gov.wales/sites/default/files/publications/2021-10/our-strategy-for-an-ageing-society.pdf (accessed: 3 February 2025).

Welsh Government (2025) Percentage of all individuals, children, working-age adults and pensioners living in relative income poverty for countries and regions in the UK between financial year ending (FYE) 1995 and FYE 2024 (averages of 3 financial years), StatsWales, Cardiff, available athttps://statswales.gov.wales/Catalogue/Community-Safety-and-Social-Inclusion/Poverty/householdbelowaverageincome-by-year (accessed: 7 July 2025).